Youth At-Risk of Welfare Dependency

There has been increasing concern about the tendency of children from low-income families to drop out of high school, become teen parents, become involved in drug-related activities, and become involved in many other activities that place them at high risk of long term welfare dependency. Children who are from low-income families typically are considered to be at-risk and are more likely than children from families with higher income levels to be caught in the cycle of poverty.

For some time, there has been an interest among policymakers and youth workers to encourage low-income communities to promote:

Substance abuse and drug abuse counseling,
Pregnancy prevention and abstinence programs,
Teen parent programs,
Mentoring and volunteer programs,
Education and training programs such as apprenticeships, internship, and school-to-work, and
Services for runaway and homeless youth.
While all of these programs are significant and deserve individual attention, the purpose of this paper is threefold. First, to discuss the targeted populations for specific programs and activities. Second, to identify the types of activities that should be directed toward the target populations, to assure future success in the workforce or continued education. Lastly, to identify legislative changes and welfare funding streams that have impacted these target populations. As states use their flexibility it is important to consider lessons learned from past programs. It is also important to note that TANF fund are flexible and can be used for teen programs, including a wide range of preventive measures.

Policy Issues

When deciding who, where, and how to implement youth programs, it is important to look at the broad range of ages, socio-economic levels, education levels, races, cultural backgrounds, and family structures. While children of all economic and social backgrounds should be involved in positive youth activities, this paper focuses primarily on: teen parents (fathers and mothers), teenage children who are on welfare, and other low-income children. In addition, it focuses on a broad range of policy issues that states may address when looking at these groups.

What special conditions do teen mothers on TANF face that other teens on TANF do not and what additional services do they need? Teen parents are subject to Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) time limits and work requirements. In addition, they are subject to stay-in-school and live-at-home provisions. States may not spend TANF funds on minor, unmarried, custodial parents who do not live at home or in an adult supervised setting, unless exempted by the state. For more information refer to "Seeking Supervision, Report Series On The Development of TANF Minor Parents Living Arrangement Rule" by the Center for Assessment and Policy Development (CAPD), forthcoming . States also may not provide TANF funds to teen parents who are not participating in high school or other equivalent training programs. For a more detailed analysis, refer to "Serving Teen Parents in a Welfare Reform Environment" and "Teen Parent Provisions in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996". As state welfare policies for teen parents are put in place, it is important to remember that teen mothers are not only playing the role of parent but are also young adults trying to become self-sufficient. Due to the requirements of TANF and the social conditions that teens face, states should consider a variety of programs and funding sources. Funding can be directed towards strategies that expand the scope and scale of school-based programs. For more detailed information on how to build school-based programs to assure that TANF provision are not punitive refer to, "School-Based Programs for Adolescent Parents and Their Children, Guidelines for Quality and Best Practices", www.capd.org/home/services/teenparents/teenparents.htm. In addition funding should continue to support stand alone programs, including: out-of-school and after-school activities for mother and baby, alternative living arrangements, home visiting programs, child care, alternative schooling, and non-traditional school hours. For several policy issues confronting teen mothers and examples of programs for teen parents refer to WIN's Issue Note-Teen Parents and Welfare Reform Policy.

What kinds of supports are necessary to teen parents to enhance their ability to achieve self-sufficiency? Many non-TANF teens will end up on TANF if support services, such as, child care and transportation are not provided. Providing services for this population could be seen as a welfare prevention technique and TANF funds can be used to address the needs of this population. Several states including Florida, Oregon, and California have used flexible resources to support programs for teen parents. These states models and funding possibilities have been highlighted in "School-Based Programs for Adolescent Parents and Their Young Children: Overcoming Barriers and Challenges to Implementing Comprehensive School-based Services, by CAPD.

What conditions do teen fathers face and what special services can the state provide to them? The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, tightened existing child support collection requirements and required states to adopt other enforcement measures in dealing with delinquent non-custodial parents, such as revoking driver’s or professional licenses. The law also increases the performance standards that states must meet in terms of the percentage of child support cases for which paternity is established. Additional federal support was made available by including to non-custodial parents in the target audience for funding under Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and employment assistance under the new Welfare to Work Program (created by the Balanced Budget Act of 1997). Teen fathers face a variety of problems and can benefit from a range of support services, including: flexible work schedules and school schedules, child care, male oriented parenting classes, alternative schooling, mentoring programs, and life skills. Several policy issues that states may want to address when dealing with teen fathers are mentioned in an earlier WIN Issue Note, "Father-Child Relationships in Welfare Reform."

What support services should be incorporated into all youth programs? While problem-focused support services are needed, some general support services can work across programs such supports, include: making teens feel safe, making them feel like they belong, giving them a sense of independence while being supervised, and providing education as well as physical activities. Most of these components work hand in hand with one another. Youth who have solid skills are more likely

develop employment competence and seek opportunities to contribute those skills to society. While many components should be universal across programs it is important to remember that there is a range of issues youth face that require age- and/or gender-specific programs.

What in additional to TANF are new sources of money to support youth activities? While past legislative changes, such as the Family Support Act of 1988 and the National and Community Service Act of 1990 and 1993 have addressed youth issues in the context of welfare, new welfare legislation has added state financial and programmatic flexibility in creating new programs and enhancing old programs.

The Welfare-to Work grants provide additional funding. While most youth are not eligible for welfare-to-work money, many older youth may be eligible through community colleges, work experience, and employment and training programs. To find out more about Welfare-to-Work Eligibility refer to National Governors' Association Budget Reconciliation Summary of Welfare Provisions, August 8, 1997 at http://www.nga.org/Welfare/WelfareDocs/970808SummaryWelfare.htm. To find information on how states are using their Welfare-to-Work money to enhance youth employment refer to http://www.doleta.gov/wtw.

The Workforce Investment Act allows for a local board to receive a Youth Opportunity Grant if it serves a community that has been designated as a empowerment zone or enterprise community, or has been designated by the Governor as a high poverty area in a state that does not have an EZ or an EC. Funds from the Act may be used to pay wages for work experiences in the private, for-profit sector in cases where the work experience will provide opportunities for career exploration. Work experiences are provided for the benefit of the youth participant. More detailed information on the Workforce Investment Act can be found at http://usworkforce.org.

Are we aware of and using existing sources of money to support programs? There are multiple federal agencies which provide funding that can support enhanced youth activities. The Department of Education is the largest source of federal funds for youth programs. They have resources in many programs including Upward Bound, School-to-Work, Even Start, Partnership for Family Involvement in Education, Making Schools Safe and Drug Free, the 21st Century Community Learning Centers, and the Federal Work-Study Program. The Department of Justice has resources in the Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP), the BJA Local Law Enforcement Block Grants, Sage Futures, the Gang-Free school and Communities, Drug Abuse Resistance Education, D.A.R.E, and Youth Environmental Services. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services provides resources through the Social Services and Community Development Block Grants, the Adolescent Family Life Program, and the Children, Youth and Families At Risk Initiatives. Additional services are also provided from the Corporation for National Service (AmeriCorps USA), The Department of Housing and Urban Developments (Community Development Block Grant, Public Housing Youth Sports Program, and Youthbuild), the Department of Agriculture (4-H Youth Development), and the Department of Labor (Youth Fair Chance, Year Round program for youth/Title II-C, and Native American Programs). For more information on federal resources for youth activities in any of these departments refer to http://www.reeusda.gov/pavnet/ff/ffnative.htm.

While much of the funding for youth programs is provided by federal, state or local government, several other funding streams to support youth activities can be obtained from foundations, faith-based organizations, and volunteer programs.

What opportunities are available to use funding across agencies? Research has shown, "that because of funding constraints and political pressures to spread limited resources to reach many youth, there has been a tendency for programs to be relatively short with isolated intervention, lacking continuity of services". To help rectify the problems resulting form the spreading of scarce resources, agencies should look to collaborative efforts. Collaboration can be broad and include education-workers, child welfare workers and welfare staff. Additional partners could include; school-based programs for adolescent parents, health care facilities, public housing authorities, public sector employers, and parks and recreational departments. To expand on funding opportunities, economic development agencies, banks, foundations, and other sources of capital could be involved. While all of these partners bring funding opportunities that can be used across agencies, they also bring strategies and unique perspectives on what they can provide to youth development. To learn more about how education and welfare agencies can work together, refer to "Learning to Work Together" by the Center for Law and Social Policy, 202-328-5140.

Research Findings

Research on program components

According to the National Youth Employment Coalition, research has shown that finding employment for participants of youth employment and training programs is not enough to ensure job retention and career development. Youth often progress through a series of jobs before they form long-term attachments in the labor market between the ages of 25 and 30. Extensive support and follow-up are needed for former participants in order to help them retain jobs, obtain new jobs, go back to school and/or stay in school. In the "Best Practices for Youth Professionals and Those Who Care: Helping Youth Stay on the Job and Develop Toward Careers" the Coalition has outlined some key elements in what it considers to be successful youth post-placement programs. In addition, it links to several effective practice web sites on youth programs. To access this report, refer to http://www.teamyouth.com/practices.htm.

According to the Fund for the City of New York, program evaluations and studies of service systems for youth indicate severe limitations. Services are typically partial and fragmented, single-problem-focused and inadequate in their number, duration and capacity to serve those most in need. The evaluations and studies address the need to focus more on health and physical competence, personal and social competence, cognitive and creative competence, vocational competence, and citizenship competence.

The National Academy of Sciences’ report on high risk youth emphasizes strategies that combine attention to individual needs with broad community-wide intervention are most successful. There is a need for youth to form relationships with adults, master skills, and contribute to their own and their community’s well being. Further research by Jobs for the Future emphasizes the need for successful work preparation programs serving disadvantaged in-school and out-of-school youth to incorporate a common set of design principles in their program.

While this is only a small portion of research available on teen program components, much more extensive research is available from the American Youth Policy Forum, Mathematica, the Center for Assessment and Policy Development, and the National Youth Employment Coalition

Cost Benefits of Youth Programs

Research from a national evaluation of Conservation and Youth Service Corps conducted by Abt Associates indicates that the Corps are promising program models for further youth activities. The results of this study show that Corps yield $1.04 in monetary benefits over and above cost for each hour of service they perform, corps produce over $13.24 worth of service per program hour, young people who participate in corps work for pay more than a comparable group, and youth in corps are less likely to be arrested. For more details on Youth Corps, host and sponsors of the programs, and cost allocations refer to "Youth Corps: Promising Strategies for young people and Their Communities" by Abt Associates Inc., 617-492-5219.

Additional research from the Youth Development and Research Fund reveals that researchers in New York City have stressed the need to invest in youth programs. Their research looked at the cost to society of not investing in children. They have estimated that every dollar invested in youth results in over $2.00 restored to the economy in the form of wages and decreased welfare benefits. For more information on the costs of funding youth programs contact the Youth Development and Research Fund at 301-216-2050 or on the web at http://www.teamyouth.com/hot_issues.htm.

Work In Progress

The Finance Project is working with the DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund (DWRD) to plan and develop technical assistance capability on financing and sustainability. To support the Making the Most of Out-of-School Time (MOST) and Extended Services Schools (ESS) Initiatives of the Fund. These initiatives address the dearth of positive opportunities for school-age children during non-school hours, a critical problem facing today's youth, their families, and communities. Critical to the success and sustainability of these initiatives are the ways in which they are financed. This planning work will be aimed not only at supporting the MOST and ESS initiatives specifically, but also generally at increasing the capacity of the field to build successful and sustainable out-of-school time systems and programs. For more information contact Barbara Langford at the Finance Project at 202-628-4200.

Through the 21st Century Community Learning Centers, $100 million is available in 1999 for a new grant competition. The 21st Century Community Learning Center program enables schools to stay open longer, providing a safe place for children after school. The programs provide assistance for middle school students to prepare for high school, while providing recreational activities. Applications for the 1999 21st century Community Learning Centers can be found at the Department of Education web site at http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/21stCCLC/index.html or by phone at 1-877-4-ED-Pubs.

According to a recent HHS announcement, Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New York and Oregon have received awards to help identify, develop and strengthen effective youth development strategies. These grants are to engage in collaborative efforts across agencies. For more information on the HHS announcement contact Michael Kharfen at 202-401-9215. In addition, HHS has begun a new study to review and analyze data on the Independent Living Program. Additional information on the progress of these activities can be obtained from the Administration for Children and Families or at http://www.acf.dhhs.gov. "Trends in the Well-being of America's Children and Youth 1998" published by the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, shows National data trends on economic security, health condition, education and achievement, teen fertility, and other indicators of well being for children and youth. This document can be obtained off the web at http://aspe.dhhs.gov

The Center for Assessment and Policy Development has several projects underway pertaining to youth and teen parent programs. The first of particular interest to this paper is a partnership with the Center for Law and Social Policy and the Social Policy Action Network, which will document state and community TANF residency policies and practices for teen parents and their children. Many other CAPD initiatives like the School-Based Initiative for Adolescent Parents and Their Young Children and publications can be found on their web site at http://www.capd.org/home. For additional information on CAPD initiatives and to many publications contact Wendy Wolf at 610-664-4540.

The National Tech Prep Network (NTPN), the National Employer Leadership Council (NELC), and the National School-to-Work Office are sponsoring, "Employer to Employer, Envisioning the Workforce of the Future" on April 26-27, 1999 in Dallas, Texas. For more information contact, 1-800-251-7236 or 202-401-6222, or on the Internet at http://www.stw.ed.gov/ht/employer.htm.

Innovative Practices

Programs Targeted Specifically at Teen Parents

California-Senate Bull 1064 established the California School Age Families Education Program (CAL-SAFE). The program is designed to improve the educational experience and increase availability of support services for enrolled students so that they may achieve program goals. The program also recognizes the developmental needs of the children of teen parents. For more information on CAL-SAFE contact Ronda Simpson-Brown at 916-653-4297. Florida and Oregon have similar programs. Detailed information on these programs is available in from CAPD in their publications.

Illinois-Teen Parent Services helps TANF parents stay in school, obtain a high school diploma, and achieve economic independence. The program is administered through contracts with youth-serving agencies and operated in parts of the state by special Department of Human Resources teen parent case managers. Services include case management, assessment, educational programs, workshops, and support services. DHS also operates the Teen REACH program, which is designed to promote school success of children ages 10 to 17 living in high-poverty communities, many of whom are on TANF. The program is funded by several sources, including TANF. All 37 local projects provide academic enrichment, recreational activities, adult mentors, life skills education and parental involvement. Contact: Denise Simon, Illinois Department of Human Resources, (217) 785-0462.

Vermont: The Addison County Parent/Child Center provides teen mothers and fathers with home visitation, community playgroups, parent education, prenatal classes, prevention activities, and DADS (Diapers, Autos, Daughters and Sons), a work program for fathers and new mothers. The center is believed to have contributed to a significant decline in child abuse neglect and teen pregnancy in Addison County. For more information on DADS and the Addison County Parent/Child Center, contact Jordon Engler, 802-388-1590. In addition, Vermont has a teen mothers program, Teen Parent Education Program (TPEP), which is run by the state TANF agency through the 15 Parent-Child Centers, which provides case management services to young parents receiving TANF. TPEP provides a coordinator in each center who develops individual education plans for each teen, coordinates with her TANF case manager, advocates for her with her school, and coordinates her educational program. Educational approaches used range from traditional high school to GED, Adult Basic Education, community college, and other programs. Some programs also fund a part-time educator to provide tutoring or special classes to TPEP participants. Teens receive cash incentives, with a lifetime maximum of $500, for meeting identified educational benchmarks. Contact: Karen Ryder, Department of Social Welfare, KarenR@wpgate1.ahs.state.vt.us.

Additional states programs directed at teen fathers are reference in "Map and Track: State Initiatives to Encourage Responsible Fatherhood," from the National Center for Children in Poverty, 212-304-7100, and "What the States Are Doing to Promote Responsible Fatherhood: A National Survey," by Eric Brenner and Dereck Orr, 301-754-0437.

For technical assistance, consulting, and information on other initiatives, contact: Wade Horn, Director of the National Fatherhood Initiative, 301-948-0599, or see http://www.register.com/father; and Barbara Cleveland or Nigel Vann, Partners for Fragile Families at the National Center for Strategic Nonprofit Planning and Community Leadership, 202-429-6526.

Programs Providing Opportunities for At-Risk Youth

California- Southeastern Los Angelos County Private Industry Council (SELACO) PIC Community Youth Corps was one of the 14 youth projects recognized nationwide in 1997 by PEPNet (Promising and Effective Practices Network). The program offers Youth Services to help at-risk youth to get on track for becoming productive citizens. They provide ongoing education, motivational support, and workplace and life skills instruction to the community's out-of-school at-risk youth in order that they may eventually obtain gainful employment and become productive citizens within the community. The program provides several different services including: School to Work Programs for teens ages 16-21, Summer Youth Programs for teens ages 14-21, Community Youth Corps for teens ages 16-21, and Work Investment Now for seniors in high school. For more information contact SELACO PIC Office, 10900 East 183rd St., Suite 350, Cerritos, CA. 90703, Phone: (562) 402-9336, Fax: (562) 860-4701, or email: selaco@selaco.com.

New Hampshire- The TANF agency has contracted with the New Hampshire Job Training Council to provide its Jobs for New Hampshire Graduates programs to TANF youth enrolled at 22 high schools in the state. In each school, a staff member provides a variety of services to 32 at-risk young people, including elimination of barriers to school completion, instruction in various employment competencies, development of workplace learning opportunities, job development, and follow-up and support for at least a year after graduation. Jobs for New Hampshire Graduates is an affiliate of a national program, Jobs for America’s Graduates. Contact Bonnie St. Jean, New Hampshire Job Training Council, (603) 229-3388 or Bonnie@NHJTC.org, or see www.jag.org.

South Carolina-Through a grant from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, a partnership between the Pee Dee Community Action Agency (PDCAA), the South Carolina Department of Social Services, Poyner Adult and Community Education Center, Palmetto Vocational Center, and Florence/Darlington Technical College provides a center-based program of training and counseling for at-risk youth. The partners established the Youth Opportunities Program (YOP). YOP emphasizes prevention of the at-risk scenario that often consumes young people and provides services to both in-school and out-of-school youths. Activities include computer training and keyboarding, reading and language arts instruction, math instruction, employment training and counseling, and job placement services. Youths work with counselors and staff to form productive mentoring relationships. Evaluation findings on YOP showed that it served 93 youths during its two-year grant period. In-school youths improved their attendance records and their performance in all academic areas. YOP's employment counseling and job placement services were successful in finding jobs for 31 youths and apprenticeships for six others. Contact Freddie L. Williams, Executive Director Pee Dee Community Action Agency (A Community Action Agency), P.O. Drawer 12670 Florence, South Carolina 29505, 803-678-3400,803-678-3404 (FAX) or on the Internet at http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/ideas/case84.html.

Public/Private Efforts

California-The city of San Bernadino, through its Employment and Training Agency, has developed the Youth Development Program, which focuses on combating the rising unemployment and poverty rates among youth. The Youth Development Program, a project of Teen Post, Inc., under the leadership of the Mayor's office, has operated at California State University at San Bernardino for the past two summers. A number of entities have partnered to ensure the success of the program, including the Private Industry Council, the Employment and Training Agency, Teen Post, the San Bernardino Police Department, the City's Telecommunication Division, and California State University at San Bernardino. The program has blended funding with some coming from federal summer employment program and others coming from business sponsorships and other private sources. For more information contact San Bernardino Employment and Training Agency, (909) 888-7881.

Hawaii- Hawaii School-to-Work System, The Career Connection School-to-Work (STW) is a federally funded system introduced in 1994 and first implemented in Hawaii in 1995. The Hawaii School-to-Work System is a collaboration of students, school staff, parents, business partners, and government agencies. The purpose of the collaborative is to link education, the workplace, and the community. Several project objectives include: to integrate work-based and school-based learning, to integrate occupational and academic learning, to link secondary and post-secondary education, to solicit private, state, local, and federal leveraging funds, and to integrate STW with other educational reform efforts. To find out more information on this program and its evaluations refer to Hawaii School-to-Work, 874 Dillingham Blvd., Bldg. 9, Honolulu, HI 96817, Phone: (808) 845-9432, Fax: (808) 842-9847, or on the Internet at http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/stw/

Rhode Island- Adolescent Self-Sufficiency Collaborative is a statewide network of community organizations serving pregnant and parenting teens, not just those on TANF. It is funded, coordinated and monitored by the Department of Human Services through contractors. Clients receive assessment and case management services to promote the postponement of repeat pregnancies, the establishment of child support and paternity, safe living arrangements, and completion of secondary school. TANF funds provide about half of the program’s budget. Contact: Pamela Goodwin, Department of Human Services, pgoodwin@gw.dhs.state.ri.us.

Cross Agency Initiative

Kentucky-Jefferson County, Kentucky’s Neighborhood Places are family resource centers that bring together staff of the schools, welfare department, health department, mental health, drug and alcohol, and other agencies. Neighborhood Places and their partner agencies have developed a school attendance support plan. Among the highlights of the plan, the county human services department will fund local churches to work with middle school students at risk for poor attendance, the public schools will provide attendance data to the TANF agency, and all Neighborhood Place staff will include assessment of children’s school attendance as part of their case management. Each of the seven local Neighborhood Places has its own plan to support attendance. In addition, the Jefferson County Public Schools has developed a computer program to report attendance data to the public assistance office. Contact: Martin Bell, Jefferson County Public Schools, (502) 485-3949.

For More Information . . .

RESOURCE CONTACTS

American Youth Policy Forum, Samuel Halpern, (202) 775-9731, http://www.aypf.org/

America's Promise - The Alliance for Youth, 703 684-4500, http://www.citizenservice.org/

BUREAU FOR AT-RISK YOUTH, 1-800-99-YOUTH, http://www.at-risk.com/

Carnegie Corporation of New York, 212-371-3200, http://www.carnegie.org/
Center for Assessment and Policy Development (CAPD), 610-664-4540, http://www.capd.org
Cornell Youth and Work Program, http://www.human.cornell.edu/youthwork/

Federal Support for Youth and Family Programming-Prepared by the National Clearinghouse on Families & Youth, http://www.ncfy.com/thefeds.htm
Jobs for the Future, 617-728-4446

National Collaboration for Youth 202-347-2080

National Youth Employment Coalition, David Brown, 202-659-1064.

National and Corporate Foundations That Fund Youth Service Initiatives, 301-608-8098 http://www.ncfy.com/foundat.htm

National Dropout Prevention Center, 864-656-2599, http://www.dropoutprevention.org/

National Institute on Out-of-School Time, http://www.wellesley.edu/WCW/CRW/SACnoist.html

National Mentoring Partnership, 202-729-4345, http://www.mentoring.org/

National Network for Youth, (202) 729-4345

National School Age Care Alliance, Contact NSACA Public Policy Committee Co-charis: Linda Zang lczang@home.com, 410.767.7813 or Janet Frieling, frieling@ywcaworks.org 206-461-3602, http://www.nsaca.org/

National School-to-Work Gateway, http://www.stw.ed.gov/

National Service-Learning Cooperative Clearinghouse, ERIC Clearinghouse on Service-Learning, 800-808-SERVe (7378), http://www.nicsl.coled.umn.edu/

National Youth Employment Coalition (NYEC), 202-659-1064, http://www.nyec.org
National Youth Leadership Council, 612-631-3672, http://www.nylc.org/

Public/Private Ventures, 215 557-4400, http://epn.org/ppv/ppreso.html

The Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP), Jodie Levin-Epstein, (202) 328-5174, jodie@clasp.org; Julie Strawn, (202) 797-6536 or jstrawn@clasp.org

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Office of Family Assistance: Mack Storrs, (202) 401-9289; Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation: Emily Novick (youth), 202-690-5937

Youth Development and Research Fund. http://www.teamyouth.com/practices.htm

Youth Development Institute, Fund for the City of New York. http://www.fcny.org

Youth Training Program at the Department of Labor, http://www.doleta.gov/programs/youthtrn.htm
PUBLICATIONS

ABT Associates, Youth Corps: Promising Strategies for Young People and Their Communities. Bethesda, Maryland, 1997.

American Youth Policy Forum, Washington, DC. http://www.aypf.org
Some Things DO Make a Difference for Youth, 1997.
A Forum Brief (Series on Youth and Employment Issues).
Brown, David, Preparing Youth for the Workforce under Welfare Reform. Washington, DC: National Governors' Association, July 1998. http://www.nga.org/Pubs/issueBriefs/1998/980728Youth.asp

Cohen, Marie, Promoting Education Amongst TANF Teens. Washington, DC: Welfare Information Network, 1998. http://www.welfareinfo.org/win.htm.

Levin-Epstein, Jodie, Teen Parent Provisions in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy, 1996. http://www.clasp.org.

Long, David, What Works? Evidence from Evaluation research on Programs for Disadvantage Youth in the United States. Prepared for Human Resources Development Canada, May 1996. 301 718-3154.

Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., Educating At-Risk Youth for Tomorrow's Workforce. Princeton, NJ. http://www.mathematic-mpr.com/EDATRISK.HTM

Morley, Elaine and Rossman, Sheli, Helping At-Risk youth: Lessons from Community-based Initiatives. Washington, DC: 1997. http://www.urban.org/family/helpyouth.html

Stebbins, Helene, Serving Teen parents in A Welfare Reform Environment. Washington, DC: National Governors Association, 1997.

United State Department of Education, Safe and Smart: Making After-School Hours Work for Kids. Washington, DC. June 1998. http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SafeandSmart/chapter2.html.

United State Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children & Youth, 1998

United States General Accounting Office, At-Risk And Delinquent Youth: Multiple Programs Lack Coordinated Federal Efforts. Washington, DC: November, 1997.