Early Childhood Education

With about 60 percent of American children under age 5 spending part of their day
in care outside the home, many policymakers seem to be jumping on the early
childhood education bandwagon. Most states now fund or are creating preschool
programs, many have developed learning standards for young children,1 and it is
becoming widely accepted that high-quality early childhood education enhances
school readiness and reduces racial and ethnic achievement gaps.
Published by the American Educational Research Association
That is all good. But before students and
society can fully reap the rewards of early
education, policymakers need to know where
to direct their efforts. In designing high-quality
early childhood programs, many important
choices need to be made, such as deciding
whether to provide universal care or to target
services to the most vulnerable youngsters;
how much time is needed in preschool (i.e.,
what age to start, how many years it should
last, and whether it should be full day or half
day); and what kind of follow-up might be
needed in “regular school.”
The first step in making such decisions is
knowing what makes a program “high quality.”
Research suggests that the most effective
programs are center based — preschools,
nursery schools, learning centers, and the
like. Center-based care does not encompass
programs operating out of a caregiver’s home
or programs involving only caregiver visits to
a child’s home.
Effective Early Childhood Programs
Strong evidence pointing to the benefits of
high-quality early childhood education, and
how to achieve them, comes from carefully
conducted short- and long-term studies.2 The
studies compared school and life outcomes
for participants in the program to those of a
randomly selected control group of children
who did not participate.
Although the programs varied in duration,
the age at which care began, the curricula used,
the characteristics of the families and children,
and some of the social and health services provided,
the results are remarkably similar. Atrisk
children who participate in high-quality,
center-based programs have better language
and cognitive skills in the first few years of
elementary school than do similar children who
did not have such experiences. They tend to
score higher on math and reading tests, and
they are less likely to repeat a grade, drop out of
school, need special education or remedial
services, or get into trouble with the law in the future. They
also tend to complete more years of education and are
more likely to attend a four-year college. These and other
studies also found the most significant benefits accrued
to low-income and minority children and those whose
mothers had a high school education or less.3
One of the longest-running and best-known studies of
preschool found that children who attended the High/
Scope Perry Preschool Project in Ypsilanti, MI, four
decades ago continue to be more law-abiding, earn
higher incomes, and have more stable home lives than
similar adults who were not enrolled in the program.
Because of such positive results, experts agree that
investments in high-quality early childhood education
make financial sense. Economic analyses show that such
programs have stronger and longer-lasting effects than
alternative options such as remediation, class size reductions,
and programs that start later in life. In addition,
every $1 invested generates a return to society of
anywhere from $3 to more than $17 because of reduced
special education costs, less grade repetition, higher adult
earnings, more tax revenues, reduced crime rates (which
produce the greatest savings), and other benefits.4
It must be noted, though, that most of these long-term
effects stem from relatively small-scale, intensive model
programs, designed and conducted by experts who did
not face the challenge of selecting, training, and overseeing
large numbers of teachers and centers. These programs
typically incorporate best practices such as
language-rich, developmentally appropriate education;
highly trained teachers; and low child-staff ratios.
Scaling Up High-Quality Preschool
Although the best early childhood education results
are seen in center-based programs, all center-based
programs are not top notch. Low-quality programs can
be found in affluent and middle-class communities, and
some children in poor communities have access to very
good preschools, although subpar programs most often
affect our most vulnerable children.5
In an effort to cast a wider net, Oklahoma has
launched a landmark program offering preschool to all
4-year-olds in the state.6 The program emphasizes high
quality in part by requiring lead teachers to have a college
degree and early childhood certification, as well as by
guaranteeing teacher pay rates equivalent to those
received by other public school teachers. A study of the
program’s impact on school readiness found four- to
seven-month gains in premath, prewriting, and prereading
skills, above and beyond the normal gains that come
with getting older. Improvements were seen in all ethnic
groups, with the highest for Latino children.
Although Oklahoma’s gains surpass those of Head
Start,7 the far larger federally sponsored preschool program
started in 1965, they fall short of results generated by
the smaller model programs. Nevertheless, the Oklahoma
efforts, along with those in five other states,8 show that it is
possible to incorporate many of the hallmarks of highquality
child care in a scaled-up effort that reaches thousands
of children and produce commensurate effects.
Ready for Regular School
Research has found that investments in high-quality early
childhood education can increase readiness for school and
provide long-term social benefits, particularly for lowincome
and minority children and those whose parents
have little education. Highly effective preparation for
formal schooling is vital to shrinking the sizable academic
gaps that already exist for these students when they enter
kindergarten. According to one report, about half the test
score gap between black and white high school students is
evident when children start school.9
Much of the policy debate, and most research, focuses
on the academic skills children need to start school. The
federal No Child Left Behind Act emphasizes literacy and
math skills, while reauthorization bills for Head Start call
for the development of education performance standards.
Similarly, the National Research Council recommends that
all states draft content standards for the early years that
address areas often omitted from early childhood programs,
10 including phonological awareness (understanding
the sounds that make up words), number concepts,
methods of scientific investigation, and cultural
knowledge and language.
While children with weak academic skills predictably
struggle in school, children who cannot sit still, are disruptive
in class, or otherwise show poor self-regulation also
are at greater risk of juvenile delinquency and other problems
later in life. Fully preparing children for school
involves addressing a broad range of social and emotional
needs. Therefore, high-quality preschool programs must
attend to both academic and social skills.
The National Education Goals Panel recognized the
importance of nonacademic skills in 1997 when it cited
Research Points | Fall 2005 | Page 2
continued on page 4
Benefits of High-Quality Preschool
Facts at a Glance
4High-quality early childhood programs
produce children with better school
readiness skills and yield substantial longterm
benefits, including higher graduation
rates, fewer school dropouts, less need for
special education, and less crime.
4The most effective preschool programs are
center-based and offer a curriculum that is
both intellectually rich and broad enough
to meet children’s social and emotional
development needs.
Research Points | Fall 2005 | Page 3
More Success in the Education System
Oklahoma kindergarten students who completed the state’s
high-quality preschool program show higher gains in tests of
letter-word identification, spelling, and applied problems
compared to other students. Hispanic and black students
enjoyed marked improvement in all three areas.
The Carolina Abecedarian Project is the only randomized trial of
child care with a longitudinal follow-up to adulthood. Although
the program has a somewhat modest positive impact on longterm
cognitive measures of student achievement, it significantly
enhances progress in later academic efforts.
Source: Barnett, W.S., Masse, L.N. (in press). “Comparative Benefit-Cost Analysis
of the Abecedarian Program and Its Policy Implications.” Economics of
Education Review.
Source: Gormley, W.T., et al. ( 2004). The Effects of Oklahoma’s Universal
Pre-K Program on School Readiness: An Executive Summary.Washington,
DC: Center for Research on Children in the United States, Georgetown
University.
Improved School Readiness
Race/Ethnicity of Oklahoma Students
Test Score Gains
Percentage of Students
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
College
attendance
High school
graduation
by age 19
Never
repeated
grade
34%
66% 67%
51%
36%
13%
Abecedarian Students
Other Students
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
Letter-Word Identification
Spelling
Applied Problems
White Native
American
Hispanic Black
53%
6%
26%
52%
35%
20%
49%
54%
39%
79%
21%
29%
five categories of learning and development that must be
addressed so that all children can start school ready to
learn: physical well-being and motor development; social
and emotional development; positive approaches to
learning; language development and communication
skills; and cognition and general knowledge.11
Conclusion
Today, nearly four out of five states invest in preschool
programs. However, states’ financial commitment to early
childhood education, their eligibility requirements, and the
number of children who actually receive care vary widely,
making high-quality and readily available state-funded
preschool programs the exception rather than the rule.12
Research shows that high-quality, center-based
programs include two major components:
A rich curriculum. The best early childhood programs
emphasize language, emergent literacy, and
early mathematics skills; motor, social, and emotional
development; health and nutrition services; structured
and unstructured play; and typically, parent
involvement and education. While no single curriculum
or pedagogical approach works for everyone,
all young children tend to learn more and be better
prepared for formal schooling when they attend
well-planned, high-quality preschools in which curricular
aims are specified and delivered.
A responsive and well-educated staff. One of
the strongest predictors of high-quality early learning
programs is the preparation and compensation
of teachers and their responsiveness and sensitivity
to the children in their care, which can be affected
by teacher-child staffing ratios. The National
Research Council recommends assigning at least
one teacher with a bachelor’s degree and specialized
education in early childhood to each group of
children.
Early childhood programs that incorporate those
features have been found to yield substantial, long-term
benefits to the children and to society at large, including
higher academic achievement, higher graduation rates,
and less criminal activity. Despite the positive results,
even significant academic effects tend to diminish over
time, especially if children end up in poor-quality elementary
and high schools. Programs that follow children
into elementary school and offer more intensive
early intervention can help to sustain long-term
academic benefits.
Research Points | Fall 2005 | Page 4
1) National Governors Association (2005).
Building the Foundation for Bright Futures.Washington,
DC: NGA.
2) See Campbell, F.A., Ramey, C.T. (1995).
“Cognitive and School Outcomes for High-Risk
African-American Students at Middle Adolescence:
Positive Effects of Early Intervention. American
Educational Research Journal,Vol. 32, pp. 743– 772.
Campbell, F.A., et al. (2002). “Early Childhood Education:
Young Adult Outcomes from the Abecedarian
Project. Applied Developmental Science, Vol. 6,
pp. 42–57. Reynolds, A.J. (2000). Success in Early
Intervention: The Chicago Child-Parent Centers.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Reynolds,
A.J. (Ed.) (1999). “Schooling and High-Risk Populations:
The Chicago Longitudinal Study,” Journal of
School Psychology,Vol. 37, No. 4. Special Issue.
Schweinhart, L.J. (February 2005). “The High/Scope
Perry Preschool Study Through Age 40: Summary,
Conclusions, and Frequently Asked Questions.”
Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research
Foundation. Brooks-Gunn, J. (2004). “Intervention
and Policy as Change Agents for Young Children.” In
P.L. Chase-Lansdale, K. Kiernan, and R.J. Friedman
(Eds.) Human Development Across Lives and Generations.
New York: Cambridge University, pp.
293–340. Brooks, Gunn, J. (2003). “Do You Believe in
Magic? What We Can Expect From Early Childhood
Intervention Programs.” SRCD Social Policy Report,
Vol. 17, pp. 3–14.
3) Hill, J.L., Brooks-Gunn, J., Waldfogel, J.
(2003). “Sustained Effects of High Participation in
an Early Intervention for Low-Birth-Weight Premature
Infants,” Developmental Psychology, Vol. 39,
No. 4, pp. 730–744.
4) See Heckman, J., Masterov, D.V. (2004). “The
Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children,”
Working Paper 5, Invest in Kids Working
Group. New York: Committee for Economic Development.
Barnett, W.S., Masse, L.N. (in press). “Comparative
Benefit-Cost Analysis of the Abecedarian
Program and Its Policy Implications.” Economics of
Education Review.
5) NICHD Early Child Care Research Network
(2002). “Early Child Care and Children's Development
Prior to School Entry: Results from NICHD
Study of Early Child Care.” American Educational
Research Journal, Vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 133–164.
6) Gormley, W.T., et al. (2005). “The Effects of
Universal Pre-K on Cognitive Development.” Developmental
Psychology, Vol. 41, No. 6.
7) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Administration for Children and Families
(May 2005). Head Start Impact Study: First Year
Findings. Washington, DC.
8) Barnett, W.S., Lamy, C., Jung, K. (2005). The
Effects of State Prekindergarten Programs on
Young Children’s School Readiness in Five States.
New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early
Education Research, Rutgers University.
9) Phillips, M., Crouse, J., Ralph, J. (1998).
“Does the Black-White Test Score Gap Widen after
Children Enter School?” In C. Jencks and M. Phillips
(Eds.) The Black-White Test Score Gap. Washington,
DC: Brookings Institution.
10) Bowman, B., Donovan, S., Burns, S. (Eds.)
(2001). Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
11) National Education Goals Panel (1995).
Reconsidering Children's Early Development and
Learning: Toward Common Views and Vocabulary.
Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
See also National Education Goals Panel (1997).
Special Early Childhood Report.Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office.
12) Barnett, W.S., et al. (2004). The State of
Preschool: 2004 State Preschool Yearbook.New
Brunswick, NJ: The National Institutes for Early
Education Research, Rutgers University.
Bibliography
Editor: Lauren B. Resnick
Managing Editor: Chris Zurawsky
Issue Researcher: Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
Issue Reviewers: W. Steven Barnett,
Ron Haskins, Arthur J. Reynolds
Issue Writer: Lynn Olson
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Cohen, Susan Fuhrman, Edmund
Gordon, Lorrie Shepard, Catherine Snow
AERA Executive Director:
Felice J. Levine
American Educational Research
Association
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Research Points is published in accordance with AERA review standards; its
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Copyright © 2005 by American Educational Research Association
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What Should Policymakers Do?
First, provide access to high-quality early childhood programs to
the most vulnerable children because of their greater need and the
higher return on the public’s investment.
Second, pay attention to quality by developing state standards for
early childhood programs, including content standards that address
what young children should know and be able to do.
Third, improve the education and compensation of early childhood
educators by requiring preschool teachers to have a four-year
college degree and specialized training.
Fourth, closely monitor early childhood education programs as
they expand to make sure quality is maintained.